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1 it follows by the Riesz theory of compact operators that
Математика: следует по теории Рисса (...)Универсальный англо-русский словарь > it follows by the Riesz theory of compact operators that
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2 it follows by the Riesz theory that
Математика: из теории Рисса следует, что (...) (...)Универсальный англо-русский словарь > it follows by the Riesz theory that
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3 follow
follow ['fɒləʊ]∎ follow me suivez-moi;∎ he left, followed by his brother il est parti, suivi de son frère;∎ the dog follows her (about or around) everywhere le chien la suit partout ou est toujours sur ses talons;∎ to follow sb in/out entrer/sortir à la suite de qn;∎ he followed me into the house il m'a suivi dans la maison;∎ his eyes followed her everywhere il la suivait partout du regard ou des yeux;∎ she always follows the crowd elle suit toujours la foule ou le mouvement;∎ his talk will be followed by a discussion son exposé sera suivi d'une discussion;∎ she followed this remark with a rather feeble joke elle agrémenta cette remarque d'une plaisanterie un peu facile;∎ in the days that followed the accident dans les jours qui suivirent l'accident;∎ as sure as day follows night aussi sûr que deux et deux font quatre;∎ he followed his father into politics il est entré en politique sur les traces de son père;∎ George IV was followed by William IV Guillaume IV a succédé à George IV;∎ familiar she'll be a hard act to follow il sera difficile de lui succéder□ ;∎ to follow suit (in cards) fournir;∎ figurative she sat down and I followed suit elle s'est assise, et j'en ai fait autant ou j'ai fait de même;∎ he followed them to Rome il les a suivis ou il a suivi leurs traces jusqu'à Rome;∎ she had her husband followed elle a fait filer son mari;∎ follow that car! suivez cette voiture!;∎ I'm being followed on me suit;∎ we're continuing to follow this line of enquiry nous continuons l'enquête dans la même direction(c) (go along) suivre, longer;∎ follow the path suivez le chemin;∎ follow the arrows suivez les flèches;∎ the border follows the river la frontière suit ou longe le fleuve;∎ the streets follow an irregular pattern les rues suivent un schéma irrégulier(d) (conform to → diet, instructions, rules) suivre; (→ orders) exécuter; (→ fashion) suivre, se conformer à; (→ someone's advice, example) suivre(e) (understand) suivre, comprendre;∎ do you follow me? vous me suivez?;∎ I don't quite follow you je ne vous suis pas vraiment;∎ I didn't follow why they killed him je n'ai pas compris pourquoi ils l'ont tué∎ Music to follow a score suivre une partition(g) (take an interest in) suivre, se tenir au courant de;∎ she followed the murder case in the papers elle a suivi l'affaire de meurtre dans les journaux;∎ have you been following that nature series on TV? avez-vous suivi ces émissions sur la nature à la télé?(h) (accept → ideas) suivre; (→ leader) appuyer, être partisan de; (→ cause, party) être partisan de, être pour;∎ to follow a football team être supporter d'une équipe de foot(i) (practise → profession) exercer, suivre; (→ career) poursuivre; (→ religion) pratiquer; (→ method) employer, suivre∎ my husband is following later mon mari viendra plus tard;∎ in the years that followed dans les années qui suivirent;∎ he answered as follows il a répondu comme suit;∎ my theory is as follows ma théorie est la suivante;∎ a long silence followed un long silence s'ensuivit;∎ his sister followed hard on his heels sa sœur le suivait de près ou était sur ses talons;∎ revolution followed hard on the heels of the elections la révolution suivit de très près ou immédiatement les élections;∎ also figurative to follow in sb's footsteps suivre les traces de qn;∎ following in her father's footsteps, she became a writer elle a suivi les traces de son père et est devenue écrivain;∎ roast beef with strawberries to follow du rosbif suivi par des fraises∎ it doesn't necessarily follow that he'll die cela ne veut pas forcément dire qu'il va mourir;∎ from what he says, it follows that he'll be standing for Parliament de ce qu'il a dit, il ressort qu'il sera candidat au Parlement;∎ it follows from this that… il en résulte que…;∎ that doesn't follow ce n'est pas forcément ou nécessairement vrai;∎ a disturbing conclusion follows from this une conclusion inquiétante en découle(c) (understand) suivre, comprendre∎ Paris sets the trend and the world follows Paris donne le ton et le reste du monde suit(a) (come after) suivre;∎ you go ahead, we'll follow on partez en avant, nous vous suivons;∎ she said she would follow on later elle a dit qu'elle nous rejoindrait plus tard∎ it follows on from this that… il en résulte que…(c) (in cricket) = reprendre la garde du guichet au début de la seconde partie faute d'avoir marqué le nombre de points requis(idea, plan) poursuivre jusqu'au bout ou jusqu'à sa conclusion;∎ he didn't follow our proposal through il n'a pas donné suite à notre propositionSport accompagner son coup ou sa balle; (in billiards) faire ou jouer un coulé(a) (pursue → advantage, success) exploiter, tirer parti de; (→ offer) donner suite à; (tip-off) suivre;∎ to follow up a clue suivre une piste(c) (continue, supplement) faire suivre, compléter;∎ follow up your initial phone call with a letter confirmez votre coup de téléphone par écrit;∎ I followed up your suggestion for a research project j'ai repris votre suggestion pour un projet de rechercheexploiter un avantage, tirer parti d'un avantage;∎ he followed up with a right to the jaw il a continué avec un droit à la mâchoire -
4 set
set 1. present participle - setting; verb1) (to put or place: She set the tray down on the table.) sette, legge, plassere2) (to put plates, knives, forks etc on (a table) for a meal: Please would you set the table for me?) dekke på bordet3) (to settle or arrange (a date, limit, price etc): It's difficult to set a price on a book when you don't know its value.) (fast)sette, angi4) (to give a person (a task etc) to do: The witch set the prince three tasks; The teacher set a test for her pupils; He should set the others a good example.) gi, sette opp; vise5) (to cause to start doing something: His behaviour set people talking.) få til å6) ((of the sun etc) to disappear below the horizon: It gets cooler when the sun sets.) gå ned7) (to become firm or solid: Has the concrete set?) stivne, binde, størkne8) (to adjust (eg a clock or its alarm) so that it is ready to perform its function: He set the alarm for 7.00 a.m.) stille9) (to arrange (hair) in waves or curls.) legge (hår)10) (to fix in the surface of something, eg jewels in a ring.) innfatte11) (to put (broken bones) into the correct position for healing: They set his broken arm.) sette sammen/i ledd2. adjective1) (fixed or arranged previously: There is a set procedure for doing this.) fast, foreskrevet, obligatorisk2) ((often with on) ready, intending or determined (to do something): He is set on going.) klar, parat, fast besluttet3) (deliberate: He had the set intention of hurting her.) uttalt, bestemt4) (stiff; fixed: He had a set smile on his face.) stiv, sammenbitt5) (not changing or developing: set ideas.) meget bestemt, fastlåst6) ((with with) having something set in it: a gold ring set with diamonds.) besatt/pyntet med3. noun1) (a group of things used or belonging together: a set of carving tools; a complete set of (the novels of) Jane Austen.) sett, samling2) (an apparatus for receiving radio or television signals: a television/radio set.) -apparat3) (a group of people: the musical set.) krets, gjeng, klikk, -sett4) (the process of setting hair: a shampoo and set.) legg(ing)5) (scenery for a play or film: There was a very impressive set in the final act.) dekorasjon, kulisser6) (a group of six or more games in tennis: She won the first set and lost the next two.) sett•- setting- setback
- set phrase
- set-square
- setting-lotion
- set-to
- set-up
- all set
- set about
- set someone against someone
- set against someone
- set someone against
- set against
- set aside
- set back
- set down
- set in
- set off
- set something or someone on someone
- set on someone
- set something or someone on
- set on
- set out
- set to
- set up
- set up camp
- set up house
- set up shop
- set uponbande--------bestemt--------legge--------støIsubst. \/set\/1) sett, samling• where's my toilet set?• he has only one set of knife, fork and spoon2) ( om bokverk) samtlige bind, verk• the set was incomplete, as one volume was missing• the encyclopedia costs £850 the set3) ( om mennesker) (omgangs)krets, gruppe, klikk4) apparat, anlegg5) ( om tidevann eller strøm) (bevegelses)retning• do you know the set of the tide?6) ( overført) innstilling, tendens, vridning7) helling, måte8) plassering, stilling9) form10) ( om tekstil) passform, fall13) ( om jakthund) stand15) gatestein, brostein16) ( teater eller film) kulisse(r), dekorasjon17) ( teater eller film) scene, innspillingsområde19) (grevling)hi• I'd like a shampoo and set, pleasejeg vil gjerne ha vask og legg, takk21) ( matematikk) mengde, gruppe22) ( i visse danser) tur(er)25) vikking (av en sag)empty set ( matematikk eller EDB) tom mengdehave no set against anyone ikke ha noe imot noenthe literary set de litteræremake a dead set at gå løs på forsøke å legge an påa set of furniture et møblementset of wheels ( hverdagslig) bil, kjerreII1) sette (frem), stille, legge ut, sette ut• could you set the chairs?2) dekke3) ( om klokke) stille4) bestemme, fastsette5) fremlegge (for), gi6) få (i gang), sette (i gang)7) ( om himmellegeme eller overført) gå ned, synke8) stivne, sette seg, tykne9) ( overført) befeste seg, sette seg, stivne10) ( om ansiktsuttrykk eller øyne) stivne, bli stram12) (teater e.l.) legge til, foregå• did you set your hair on rollers?14) montere, sette opp17) besette, innfatte19) (medisin, om ben eller ledd) sette på plass, reponere, sette i ledd, gro, vokse sammen22) få til å stivne, gjøre stiv23) beregne, vurdere, estimere• the losses were set at £50 a day24) (om tidevann, strøm, vind) gå, løpe, strømme, komme27) ( om jakthund) få stand, ta standset about gå i gang med, begynne (på)(britisk, hverdagslig) gå løs på, fare løs på spre, sette i gang• did you set the rumour about?set about doing something begynne å gjøre noeset about it bære seg atset about something gripe noe an, gå i gang med noeset against veie (opp) mot, sette (opp) motsette opp mot, gjøre fiendtlig innstilt motset a good example være et godt eksempelset a hen plassere en høne på eggset apart sette til side, reservere, legge avset apart from skille fra, se forskjell påset a price on something prissette noeset aside legge til side, sette av, sparese bort ifra• setting aside his age, you're perfect for each otheravvise, forkaste( jus) omstøte, tilsidesette, oppheveset at angripeset at large frigi, sette på frifotset at work sette i arbeid sette i gangset back sette en stopper for, stoppe forsinke, sinkeskru tilbake, sette tilbake, stille tilbakelegge bakover( hverdagslig) koste• it set me back $50plassere vekk fraset before legge frem for, forelegge sette frem foran, sette frem tilset before oneself gjøre til sin oppgaveset down sette nedsette av, slippe avskrive ned, skrive opp, notere sette (opp), føre (opp)jeg kan gi deg det svart på hvitt anse, betrakte, ta( overført) sette på plassset down as anse som, betrakte somset down in writing skrive nedset down to tilskrive, skylde på, forklare medset eggs plassere egg under en høneset forth legge frem, fremstille, skildresende ut, offentliggjøre, kunngjøre gi seg i vei, legge ut, dra ut, reiseset forth for reise tilset forward ( om visere på klokke) stille frem, skru fremsette frem, flytte frem legge frem, anføre, foregifremme, hjelpe frem ( gammeldags) gi seg i vei, legge ut, dra ut, reiseset free sette fri, slippe ut frigjøreset in begynne (for alvor), falle på, sette inn( om tidevann) sette innset off gi seg i vei, gi seg ut, reisesette i vei, løpe avgårdeavfyre, få til å eksplodere, fremkallesette i gang, starte, utløse, lede inn pådette ledet ham inn på hans favorittemne fremheve, forhøye, prydeden hvite kjolen fremhevet brunfargen hennes oppveie, kompensere, utligneskille (ut), skille frareservere, sette avset off running begynne å løpeset on overfalle, kaste seg overegge, anspore, jagehun egget Jane til å knuse vinduet rykke frem, avanseresette tilset oneself against eller set one's face against bestemt sette seg imotset oneself forward fremheve seg selvset oneself to do something sette i gang med å gjøre noe bestemme seg for å gjøre noeset oneself up against sette seg opp motset one's hand to something skrive under på noesette i gang med noeset one's mind on sette seg i hodet, absolutt ville ha, være fast bestemt påset out gi seg i vei, dra ut, reisebegynne (sin virksomhet)legge frem, fremføre, skildrelegge frem, vise frem, stille utsette ut, plassere (ut), sette frem stake ut ( om tidevann) avtaset out for reise tilset out from dra (ut) fra, utgå fraset out to gå i gang med, sette seg foreset right avhjelpeset sail sette seilset somebody off få noen til åset somebody over others sette noen over andre, sette noen til å overvåke andreset somebody to sette noen til, sette noen påset something going sette i gang noeset something in order få orden i noe, fikse noeset something off against gå opp i opp med, balansere medset something to (music) sette musikk til noe, tonesette noeset the ball rolling ( overført) dra i gang noe, begynne med noe få samtalen i gangset the fox to keep the geese se ➢ fox, 1set to sette i gang for fullthugge innpå maten, kaste seg over matensette i gang med å slåssset together sette sammenset to work skride til verket, sette i gang sette i gang med å arbeideset up sette opp, reise, oppføre• could you set up the ladder?rigge opp, monteregjøre klar, klargjøre heiseopprette, etablere, anleggeinnføreutnevneførst må vi utnevne en komité fremkalle, forårsake, voldedet å være kald kan fremkalle en irritasjon utstøte, sette igjøre frisk, få på beina( typografi) sette(hjelpe til å) etablere seghan hjalp sin sønn å etablere seg som bokhandler bygge, sette opp(spesielt amer., hverdagslig) sette en felle forset up a defence ( overført) gå i forsvarsposisjon, forsvare segset up a record sette rekordset up for oneself starte sitt eget, begynne for seg selvset up house begynne egen husholdning, etablere segset upon overfalle, kaste seg over egge, hisse, jage rykke frem, avansereset up shop åpne forretningset up the standard of revolt ( overført) heise opprørsfanenset up to be eller set oneself up as gi seg ut forset up (in) type ( typografi) settethe stage is set for eller the scene is set for ( overført) alt er klart for, alt er lagt til rette for, det er duket forIIIadj. \/set\/1) fast(satt), bestemt• is this the set price?2) stiv(net), stereotyp, ubevegelig• did you notice his set look?3) bestemt, fast, ubevegelig4) beliggende, som ligger5) ( hverdagslig) klar, ferdigall set alt (er klappet og) klart• are we all set?at a set time på et bestemt tidspunktbe set in one's way være lite fleksibel, ha inngrodde vaner, ha faste vanerbe (dead) set (up)on something ( hverdagslig) være oppsatt på noe( hverdagslig) ha slått inn påget set! ( sport) (klar) ferdig!• on your marks! get ready! get set! go!in (good) set terms i klare ord, utvetydigset fair (britisk, om vær) pent (uten tegn til å slå om)a set speech en på forhånd utarbeidet tale en typisk tale -
5 follow
A vtr1 ( move after) suivre [person, car] (into dans) ; follow that cab! suivez ce taxi! ; to have sb followed faire suivre qn ; I think I'm being followed je crois qu'on me suit ; followed by suivi par ; to follow sb in/out entrer/sortir derrière qn ; she followed her father into politics elle est entrée dans la politique comme son père ; they'll follow us on a later flight ils nous rejoindront par un autre vol ;2 ( come after in time) suivre [event, period, incident, item on list] ; succéder à [leader, monarch] ; I chose the salad and followed it with fish j'ai choisi la salade, et ensuite j'ai commandé du poisson ; I followed up my swim with a sauna après la piscine j'ai fait un sauna ; followed by suivi de ;3 (go along, be guided by) suivre [clue, path, river, arrow, map, line of inquiry, tradition, fashion, instinct, instructions] ; if you follow this argument to its logical conclusion… si vous poursuivez le raisonnement jusqu'au bout… ;4 (support, be led by) suivre [teachings, example] ; pratiquer [religion] ; adhérer à [faith, ideas] ; être le disciple de [person, leader] ; on this question I follow Freud sur cette question j'adhère à la théorie de Freud ; he follows his sister in everything il imite sa sœur en tout ;5 ( watch or read closely) suivre [sport, stock market, serial, trial, lecture, film] ; to follow sth with one's eyes suivre qch des yeux ; to follow the play in one's book suivre la pièce dans le texte ; to follow the fortunes of suivre la carrière de [person] ; suivre [team] ;6 ( understand) suivre [explanation, reasoning, plot] ; do you follow me? tu me suis? ; if you follow my meaning, if you follow me si tu vois ce que je veux dire ;B vi1 ( move after) suivre ; she followed on her bike elle a suivi en vélo ; to follow in sb's footsteps suivre les traces de qn ;2 ( come after in time) suivre ; in the days that followed dans les jours qui ont suivi ; there followed a lengthy debate il s'ensuivit un débat interminable ; what follows is just a summary ce qui suit n'est qu'un résumé ; there's ice cream to follow ensuite il y a de la glace ; the results were as follows les résultats ont été les suivants ; the sum is calculated as follows la somme est calculée comme suit or de la façon suivante ;3 ( be logical consequence) s'ensuivre ; it follows that il s'ensuit que ; it doesn't necessarily follow that ça ne veut pas forcément dire que ; problems are sure to follow il en résultera forcément des problèmes ; that doesn't follow ce n'est pas évident ; that follows ça me paraît logique ; to follow from sth that… découler de qch que… ;4 ( understand) suivre ; I don't follow je ne suis pas.follow that ○ ! faut le faire ○ !■ follow about, follow around:▶ follow [sb] around suivre [qn] partout.■ follow on [person] suivre ; to follow on from faire suite à ; following on from yesterday's lecture… à la suite du cours d'hier…■ follow out US:▶ follow out [sth] suivre [orders, instructions, advice].▶ follow through Sport faire un swing complet ;▶ follow through [sth], follow [sth] through mener [qch] à terme [project, scheme, experiment] ; tenir [promise] ; mettre [qch] à exécution [threat] ; aller jusqu'au bout de [idea, theory, argument].■ follow up:▶ follow up [sth], follow [sth] up1 (reinforce, confirm) confirmer [victory, success] (with par) ; consolider [good start, debut] (with par) ; donner suite à [letter, visit, threat] (with par) ; to follow up a letter with sth faire suivre une lettre de qch ; he followed up with a left hook [boxer] il a enchaîné avec un crochet de la gauche ;2 (act upon, pursue) suivre [story, lead] ; donner suite à [complaint, offer, call, article] ; examiner [suggestion] ; utiliser [tip, hint] ; -
6 Animal Intelligence
We can... distinguish sharply between the kind of behavior which from the very beginning arises out of a consideration of the structure of a situation, and one that does not. Only in the former case do we speak of insight, and only that behavior of animals definitely appears to us intelligent which takes account from the beginning of the lay of the land, and proceeds to deal with it in a single, continuous, and definite course. Hence follows this criterion of insight: the appearance of a complete solution with reference to the whole lay- out of the field. (KoЁhler, 1927, pp. 169-170)Signs, in [Edward] Tolman's theory, occasion in the rat realization, or cognition, or judgment, or hypotheses, or abstraction, but they do not occasion action. In his concern with what goes on in the rat's mind, Tolman has neglected to predict what the rat will do. So far as the theory is concerned the rat is left buried in thought: if he gets to the food-box at the end that is his concern, not the concern of the theory. (Guthrie, 1972, p. 172)3) A New Insight Consists of a Recombination of Pre-existent Mediating PropertiesThe insightful act is an excellent example of something that is not learned, but still depends on learning. It is not learned, since it can be adequately performed on its first occurrence; it is not perfected through practice in the first place, but appears all at once in recognizable form (further practice, however, may still improve it). On the other hand, the situation must not be completely strange; the animal must have had prior experience with the component parts of the situation, or with other situations that have some similarity to it.... All our evidence thus points to the conclusion that a new insight consists of a recombination of pre existent mediating processes, not the sudden appearance of a wholly new process. (Hebb, 1958, pp. 204-205)In Morgan's own words, the principle is, "In no case may we interpret an action as the outcome of the exercise of a higher psychical faculty, if it can be interpreted as the outcome of the exercise of one which stands lower in the psychological scale." Behaviorists universally adopted this idea as their own, interpreting it as meaning that crediting consciousness to animals can't be justified if the animal's behavior can be explained in any other way, because consciousness is certainly a "higher psychical faculty." Actually, their interpretation is wrong, since Morgan was perfectly happy with the idea of animal consciousness: he even gives examples of it directly taken from dog behavior. Thus in The Limits of Animal Intelligence, he describes a dog returning from a walk "tired" and "hungry" and going down into the kitchen and "looking up wistfully" at the cook. Says Morgan about this, "I, for one, would not feel disposed to question that he has in his mind's eye a more or less definite idea of a bone."Morgan's Canon really applies to situations where the level of intelligence credited to an animal's behavior goes well beyond what is really needed for simple and sensible explanation. Thus application of Morgan's Canon would prevent us from presuming that, when a dog finds its way home after being lost for a day, it must have the ability to read a map, or that, if a dog always begins to act hungry and pace around the kitchen at 6 P.M. and is always fed at 6:30 P.M., this must indicate that it has learned how to tell time. These conclusions involve levels of intelligence that are simply not needed to explain the behaviors. (Coren, 1994, pp. 72-73)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Animal Intelligence
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7 exchange rate risk
Finthe risk of suffering loss on converting another currency to the currency of a company’s own country.EXAMPLEExchange rate risks can be arranged into three primary categories. (1.) Economic exposure: operating costs will rise due to changes in rates and make a product uncompetitive in the world market. Little can be done to reduce this routine business risk that every enterprise must endure. (2.) Translation exposure: the impact of currency exchange rates will reduce a company’s earnings and weaken its balance sheet. To reduce translation exposure, experienced corporate fund managers use a range of techniques known as currency hedging. (3.) Transaction exposure: there will be an unfavorable move in a specific currency between the time when a contract is agreed and the time it is completed, or between the time when a lending or borrowing is initiated and the time the funds are repaid. Transaction exposure can be eased by factoring: transferring title to foreign accounts receivable to a third-party factoring house.Although there is no definitive way of forecasting exchange rates, largely because the world’s economies and financial markets are evolving so rapidly, the relationships between exchange rates, interest rates, and inflation rates can serve as leading indicators of changes in risk. These relationships are as follows. Purchasing Power Parity theory (PPP): while it can be expressed differently, the most common expression links the changes in exchange rates to those in relative price indices in two countries:Rate of change of exchange rate = Difference in inflation ratesInternational Fisher Effect (IFE): this holds that an interest-rate differential will exist only if the exchange rate is expected to change in such a way that the advantage of the higher interest rate is offset by the loss on the foreign exchange transactions. Practically speaking, the IFE implies that while an investor in a low-interest country can convert funds into the currency of a high-interest country and earn a higher rate, the gain (the interest rate differential) will be offset by the expected loss due to foreign exchange rate changes. The relationship is stated as:Expected rate of change of the exchange rate = Interest-rate differentialUnbiased Forward Rate Theory: this holds that the forward exchange rate is the best unbiased estimate of the expected future spot exchange rate.Expected exchange rate = Forward exchange rate -
8 Intelligence
There is no mystery about it: the child who is familiar with books, ideas, conversation-the ways and means of the intellectual life-before he begins school, indeed, before he begins consciously to think, has a marked advantage. He is at home in the House of intellect just as the stableboy is at home among horses, or the child of actors on the stage. (Barzun, 1959, p. 142)It is... no exaggeration to say that sensory-motor intelligence is limited to desiring success or practical adaptation, whereas the function of verbal or conceptual thought is to know and state truth. (Piaget, 1954, p. 359)ntelligence has two parts, which we shall call the epistemological and the heuristic. The epistemological part is the representation of the world in such a form that the solution of problems follows from the facts expressed in the representation. The heuristic part is the mechanism that on the basis of the information solves the problem and decides what to do. (McCarthy & Hayes, 1969, p. 466)Many scientists implicitly assume that, among all animals, the behavior and intelligence of nonhuman primates are most like our own. Nonhuman primates have relatively larger brains and proportionally more neocortex than other species... and it now seems likely that humans, chimpanzees, and gorillas shared a common ancestor as recently as 5 to 7 million years ago.... This assumption about the unique status of primate intelligence is, however, just that: an assumption. The relations between intelligence and measures of brain size is poorly understood, and evolutionary affinity does not always ensure behavioral similarity. Moreover, the view that nonhuman primates are the animals most like ourselves coexists uneasily in our minds with the equally pervasive view that primates differ fundamentally from us because they lack language; lacking language, they also lack many of the capacities necessary for reasoning and abstract thought. (Cheney & Seyfarth, 1990, p. 4)Few constructs are asked to serve as many functions in psychology as is the construct of human intelligence.... Consider four of the main functions addressed in theory and research on intelligence, and how they differ from one another.1. Biological. This type of account looks at biological processes. To qualify as a useful biological construct, intelligence should be a biochemical or biophysical process or at least somehow a resultant of biochemical or biophysical processes.2. Cognitive approaches. This type of account looks at molar cognitive representations and processes. To qualify as a useful mental construct, intelligence should be specifiable as a set of mental representations and processes that are identifiable through experimental, mathematical, or computational means.3. Contextual approaches. To qualify as a useful contextual construct, intelligence should be a source of individual differences in accomplishments in "real-world" performances. It is not enough just to account for performance in the laboratory. On [sic] the contextual view, what a person does in the lab may not even remotely resemble what the person would do outside it. Moreover, different cultures may have different conceptions of intelligence, which affect what would count as intelligent in one cultural context versus another.4. Systems approaches. Systems approaches attempt to understand intelligence through the interaction of cognition with context. They attempt to establish a link between the two levels of analysis, and to analyze what forms this link takes. (Sternberg, 1994, pp. 263-264)High but not the highest intelligence, combined with the greatest degrees of persistence, will achieve greater eminence than the highest degree of intelligence with somewhat less persistence. (Cox, 1926, p. 187)There are no definitive criteria of intelligence, just as there are none for chairness; it is a fuzzy-edged concept to which many features are relevant. Two people may both be quite intelligent and yet have very few traits in common-they resemble the prototype along different dimensions.... [Intelligence] is a resemblance between two individuals, one real and the other prototypical. (Neisser, 1979, p. 185)Given the complementary strengths and weaknesses of the differential and information-processing approaches, it should be possible, at least in theory, to synthesise an approach that would capitalise upon the strength of each approach, and thereby share the weakness of neither. (Sternberg, 1977, p. 65)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Intelligence
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9 in the following manner
Математика: следующим образом (The main idea of this theory may be explained as follows.)Универсальный англо-русский словарь > in the following manner
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10 Gestalt Psychology
The Gestaltists Demonstrate How Symbolic Reasoning Follows Their Principles of PerceptionThe Gestaltists look for simple and fundamental principles about how perception is organized, and then attempt to show how symbolic reasoning can be seen as following the same principles, while we construct a complex theory of how knowledge is applied to solve intellectual problems and then attempt to show how the symbolic description that is what one "sees" is constructed according to similar processes. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 34)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Gestalt Psychology
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